Sympatric speciation & Microtubules- Sympatric speciation is the process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting in the same geographic region. In eukaryotic organisms, sympatric speciation is thought to be an uncommon but plausible process by which genetic divergence of various populations from a single parent species and inhabiting the same geographic region leads to the creation of a new species. It’s related to microtubules because microtubules develop cell segregations in animals, so there are different traits of species live in different habitats.
Endosymbiosis & Atmospheric Gases- Endosymbisis is which one organism lives inside the body of another and both function as a single organism. It’s related to the atmosphere gases because the atmosphere protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, and it has a lot of functions too. It has a lot of functions but it’s only one organism.
Adaptive Radiation & Character Displacement- Adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage. It’s related to character displacement because character displacement means that similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated. It’s related to adaptive radiation because it overlaps, which means there will be rapidly multiplying lineage occupying many regions.
Proto-cells & Uracil- Proto cells are arises from inorganic matter through natural process. In all living things, these amino acids are organized into proteins, and the construction of these proteins is mediated by nucleic acids, which synthesized through biochemical pathways by proteins. It’s related to Uracil because uracil is one of the amino acids that contain nucleic acids.
Mechanical isolation- individual can’t mate or pollinate because of physical incompatibilities.
Temporal isolation- Individuals of different species reproduce at different times.
Behavioral isolation- individuals of different species ignore or don’t get the required cues for sex.
Ecological isolation- individuals of different species live in different places and never meet up.
Gamete mortality- gametes of different species are incompatible, so no fertilization.
Hybrid inviability- Hybrid embryos die early or the new individuals die before they can reproduce.
Hybrid sterility- Hybrid individuals can’t make functional gametes.
2. The differences between the graduate model of speciation and the punctuation model of speciation are that the graduate model of speciation holds that species originate by slight morphological changes over long time spans; whereas, in the punctuation model of speciation, it evolves in a relatively brief geologic period, within the tens to hundreds of thousands of years when populations are starting to diverge.
3. Stanley Miller thought that amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, were came to existence by chance. He used a gas mixture that he assumed to have existed on the primordial earth. Since these gases would not react with each other under natural conditions, he added energy to the mixture to start a reaction among them. After he finished the experiment, he observed that three out of the 20 amino acids which constitute the basic elements of proteins had been synthesized.
4. Membranes — Mitochondria have their own cell membranes, just like a prokaryotic cell does.
DNA — each mitochondrion has its own circular DNA genome, like a bacteria's genome, but much smaller. This DNA is passed from a mitochondrion to its offspring and is separate from the "host" cell's genome in the nucleus.
Reproduction — Mitochondria multiply by pinching in half — the same process used by bacteria. Every new mitochondrion must be produced from a parent mitochondrion in this way; if a cell's mitochondria are removed, it can't build new ones from scratch.
Saturday, April 9, 2011
Friday, April 1, 2011
Evolution
1. Prophase & Allele Frequency- Allele frequency is the proportion of all copies of a gene that is made up of a particular gene variant. In other words, it is the number of copies of a particular allele divided by the number of copies of all alleles at the genetic place in a population. It’s related to prophase 1 because during prophase, chromosomes start to sort out each other’s and begin to divide cells into different pairs.
2. Analogous structures & Natural Selection- An analogy structures are a trait or an organs that appear similar unrelated organism. It’s related to natural selection because natural selection is the process by which traits become more or less common in a population due to consistent effects upon the survival or reproduction of their bearers. One trait might be similar to the other trait, but that does not mean they came from a common ancestor. They could be similar because of the environmental changes.
3. Gene Pool & Bottleneck- Gene pool can classify as the total number of genes of every individual in an interbreeding population. Bottleneck is a phenomenon where the performance or capacity of an entire system is limited by a single or limited number of components or resources. Many species or genes are limited by the capacity and resources that they have in order for them to develop.
4. Balanced polymorphism & Search image- Balanced Selection refers to a number of selective processes by which multiple alleles are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population at frequencies above that of gene mutation. A search image can help to see those multiple alleles clearly.
III. A few essential to take away from these selections
1. Species have the ability to produce more offspring than is necessary to replace themselves.
2. There are limited resources that prevent all offspring to survive.
3. Over a long term, natural populations are of a constant size
4. Individual within species vary in many characteristics
5. Much of those variations are heritable
6. Individual compete for limited resources
7. Those who obtain resources are more successful
2.
1. Modern humans evolve. The most recent extinction crisis is under way.
2. Mass extinction of all dinosaurs and many marine organisms.
3. Ninety percent of all families lost.
4. All land masses near equator.
5. Divergences lead to eukaryotic cells, then protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
3. Individuals don’t evolve, populations do. Let’s say there is only one species lives in one region. However, couple of them went to another region, and couple of them stay in its origins. The species that fly to another region will evolve to a different trait of species because of the environment. However, when individual evolve, the whole populations evolve as well.
4. There are 3 main resources of phenotypic variation in a population. First, individuals within populations must vary in traits. Second, variations in traits must be associated with differences in survivorship and reproduction. Lastly, the variation in the traits must be heritable.
5. p2+ 2pq + q2 = 1
P= frequency of one of two alleles
Q= Frequency of the other of two alleles.
1. There is no mutation
2. The population is infinitely large
3. The population is isolated from all other populations of the species
4. Mating is random
5. All individuals survive and produce the same number of offspring.
.
2. Analogous structures & Natural Selection- An analogy structures are a trait or an organs that appear similar unrelated organism. It’s related to natural selection because natural selection is the process by which traits become more or less common in a population due to consistent effects upon the survival or reproduction of their bearers. One trait might be similar to the other trait, but that does not mean they came from a common ancestor. They could be similar because of the environmental changes.
3. Gene Pool & Bottleneck- Gene pool can classify as the total number of genes of every individual in an interbreeding population. Bottleneck is a phenomenon where the performance or capacity of an entire system is limited by a single or limited number of components or resources. Many species or genes are limited by the capacity and resources that they have in order for them to develop.
4. Balanced polymorphism & Search image- Balanced Selection refers to a number of selective processes by which multiple alleles are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population at frequencies above that of gene mutation. A search image can help to see those multiple alleles clearly.
III. A few essential to take away from these selections
1. Species have the ability to produce more offspring than is necessary to replace themselves.
2. There are limited resources that prevent all offspring to survive.
3. Over a long term, natural populations are of a constant size
4. Individual within species vary in many characteristics
5. Much of those variations are heritable
6. Individual compete for limited resources
7. Those who obtain resources are more successful
2.
1. Modern humans evolve. The most recent extinction crisis is under way.
2. Mass extinction of all dinosaurs and many marine organisms.
3. Ninety percent of all families lost.
4. All land masses near equator.
5. Divergences lead to eukaryotic cells, then protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
3. Individuals don’t evolve, populations do. Let’s say there is only one species lives in one region. However, couple of them went to another region, and couple of them stay in its origins. The species that fly to another region will evolve to a different trait of species because of the environment. However, when individual evolve, the whole populations evolve as well.
4. There are 3 main resources of phenotypic variation in a population. First, individuals within populations must vary in traits. Second, variations in traits must be associated with differences in survivorship and reproduction. Lastly, the variation in the traits must be heritable.
5. p2+ 2pq + q2 = 1
P= frequency of one of two alleles
Q= Frequency of the other of two alleles.
1. There is no mutation
2. The population is infinitely large
3. The population is isolated from all other populations of the species
4. Mating is random
5. All individuals survive and produce the same number of offspring.
.
Tuesday, March 15, 2011
Chapter 15, 16, 21
Lysogenic & Binary Fission- Lysogenic is a process of viral reproduction which characterized by integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid onto the host bacterium genome. It’s related to Binary Fission because binary fission is the primary method of reproduction of prokaryotic organisms. It differentiates into types, depending on the axis of cell separation. Since they are all a method of producing different things, therefore, they are related to each others.
Conjugation & Bacterial transformation- Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contract or by a bridge- like connection between two cells. Bacterial transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake, incorporate of exogenous genetic material from its surrounding and taken up through the cell membrane. They are related to each others because they are all directing cells to one direction.
Plasmid & Retrovirus- A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and able to replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA. A retrovirus is an RNA virus that is replicated in a host cell via the enzyme reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from its RNA genome. They are related to each others because both of them are using differ methods to produce DNA. In plasmid, the DNA molecule just replicated by itself independently, and in retrovirus, DNA just derives from RNA.
Operator & Hydrolysis- Operator is a binding site for a type of regulatory protein known as repressor, which stops transcription. During hydrolysis, an enzyme splits a molecule, and then the components of water are attached to the fragments. They both are related to each other because they all need to use enzymes to achieve their jobs.
Okazaki Fragments & Restriction enzymes- An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short of DNA created on the lagging strand during DNA replication. Each Okazaki fragment is initiated near the replication fork at the RNA primer created by primase. A restriction enzyme is an enzyme that cuts double- stranded or single stranded DNA at specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. They are related to each others because Okazaki fragment is restricted by enzymes. And those enzymes determine the jobs for Okazaki fragment.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. There are three stages of protein synthesis: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination. During the stage of initiation, protein synthesis begins with the formation of a complex of the small ribosomal subunit. This special initiation tRNA carries methionine. It binds directly to the P site on the small ribosomal subunit. Once all the conditions are met, it will begin codon of the mRNA, which is the large ribosomal subunit, and begins the initiation.
During Elongation, ribosome assembles with methionine tRNA and bounds in the P site. A peptide bonds are formed between the two amino acids and the new peptide bonds are transferred to the tRNA, which it just came in, leaving the methionine empty. Thus, the process continues, and it creates a longer amino acid sequence.
During Termination, Translation ends when one of the three top codons is bound in the A site by a release factor that resembles tRNA. This makes the new RNA strands.
2.
3. Automated DNA reveals the order of nucleotides in DNA fragments rapidly. As DNA polymerase copies a template DNA, the longer fragments stop growing as soon as one of four different fluorescent stop growing as soon as one of the four fluorescent attaches to them. Then, electrophoresis separates the labeled fragments into bands according to length. The shorter fragments will move faster than the longer fragments. The order of the colored bands as they migrate through the gel reflects which fluorescent base was added to the end of each fragment, and it indicates the template DNA base sequence. After it gets the entire DNA organized, it can get your fingerprint.
4. In prokaryotic genome, only bacteria and archaeans divide by prokaryotic fission: replication of a single, circular bacterial chromosome and division of a parent cell into two genetically equivalent daughter cells. Many species have plasmid, and prokaryotic genome can transfer plasmids to cells of the same of different species of bacterial conjugation. In eukaryotic cells, they use conjugation to divide cells instead of fission.
5. Lytic cycles are cycles of viral reproduction. The lytic cyle involves the multiplication of bacteria, and at the end of the cycle, the cells are destroyed. The different between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycles is that the lysogenic cycle is the initial cycle that occurs before the lytic cycle. The lytic cycle is prokaryotic cell, and the lysogenic cycle is for eukaryotic cells.
Conjugation & Bacterial transformation- Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contract or by a bridge- like connection between two cells. Bacterial transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake, incorporate of exogenous genetic material from its surrounding and taken up through the cell membrane. They are related to each others because they are all directing cells to one direction.
Plasmid & Retrovirus- A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and able to replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA. A retrovirus is an RNA virus that is replicated in a host cell via the enzyme reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from its RNA genome. They are related to each others because both of them are using differ methods to produce DNA. In plasmid, the DNA molecule just replicated by itself independently, and in retrovirus, DNA just derives from RNA.
Operator & Hydrolysis- Operator is a binding site for a type of regulatory protein known as repressor, which stops transcription. During hydrolysis, an enzyme splits a molecule, and then the components of water are attached to the fragments. They both are related to each other because they all need to use enzymes to achieve their jobs.
Okazaki Fragments & Restriction enzymes- An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short of DNA created on the lagging strand during DNA replication. Each Okazaki fragment is initiated near the replication fork at the RNA primer created by primase. A restriction enzyme is an enzyme that cuts double- stranded or single stranded DNA at specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. They are related to each others because Okazaki fragment is restricted by enzymes. And those enzymes determine the jobs for Okazaki fragment.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. There are three stages of protein synthesis: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination. During the stage of initiation, protein synthesis begins with the formation of a complex of the small ribosomal subunit. This special initiation tRNA carries methionine. It binds directly to the P site on the small ribosomal subunit. Once all the conditions are met, it will begin codon of the mRNA, which is the large ribosomal subunit, and begins the initiation.
During Elongation, ribosome assembles with methionine tRNA and bounds in the P site. A peptide bonds are formed between the two amino acids and the new peptide bonds are transferred to the tRNA, which it just came in, leaving the methionine empty. Thus, the process continues, and it creates a longer amino acid sequence.
During Termination, Translation ends when one of the three top codons is bound in the A site by a release factor that resembles tRNA. This makes the new RNA strands.
2.
3. Automated DNA reveals the order of nucleotides in DNA fragments rapidly. As DNA polymerase copies a template DNA, the longer fragments stop growing as soon as one of four different fluorescent stop growing as soon as one of the four fluorescent attaches to them. Then, electrophoresis separates the labeled fragments into bands according to length. The shorter fragments will move faster than the longer fragments. The order of the colored bands as they migrate through the gel reflects which fluorescent base was added to the end of each fragment, and it indicates the template DNA base sequence. After it gets the entire DNA organized, it can get your fingerprint.
4. In prokaryotic genome, only bacteria and archaeans divide by prokaryotic fission: replication of a single, circular bacterial chromosome and division of a parent cell into two genetically equivalent daughter cells. Many species have plasmid, and prokaryotic genome can transfer plasmids to cells of the same of different species of bacterial conjugation. In eukaryotic cells, they use conjugation to divide cells instead of fission.
5. Lytic cycles are cycles of viral reproduction. The lytic cyle involves the multiplication of bacteria, and at the end of the cycle, the cells are destroyed. The different between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycles is that the lysogenic cycle is the initial cycle that occurs before the lytic cycle. The lytic cycle is prokaryotic cell, and the lysogenic cycle is for eukaryotic cells.
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
Chapter 13 and 14
1. 5`& electronegativity- 5` refers to when a DNA is bonding with RNA. It’s similar to electronegativity because electronegativity attracts electrons toward itself and form negative ions. DNA attaches to RNA by using PO3.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
Chapter 13 and 14
1. 5`& electronegativity- 5` refers to when a DNA is bonding with RNA. It’s similar to electronegativity because electronegativity attracts electrons toward itself and form negative ions. DNA attaches to RNA by using PO3.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
Sunday, February 13, 2011
Chapter 11 and 12. AP BIology
Gene Locus & disulfide bridge- Gene locus is where all the genes are located. Disulfide Bridge is a covalent bond formed between the thiol groups of two cysteine residues, usually in the polypeptide chains of protein. These bonds contribute to tertiary structure of proteins. They are related to each other because genes express proteins and proteins determine traits.
Nonjunction &9-triplet pattern- Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division which means it will destroy the MTOC. When the MTOC is being damaged, it will not able to help cells get through meiosis or mitosis; as a result, chromosomes will not be able to separate properly during cell division.
Autosome & Steroid- Autosomes are chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. However, there are many kinds of steroid, and sex hormones, which are androgens and oestrogens, are composed by the adrenal cortex. Steroid is used to produce autosomes by using androgens and oestrogens.
Polygenic & Glycocalyx- Glycocalyx is a layer of carbohydrate on the surface of the plasma membrane of most eukaryotic cells. It plays a role in cell to cell adhesion and in regulating the exchange of materials between a cell and its environment. When the inheritance of a phenotypic characteristic that varies in degree and attributed to the interactions between two or more genes and their environment, glycocalyx will regulate the exchange of materials between cell and its environment.
The law of segregation is the separation of homologous pairs during meiosis, so there will be two versions of each gene, referred to as alleles. The law of assortment means that each chromosome inherits independently of each other. Autosome will be separated during the law of segregation and creates a pairs of sex chromosomes. From there, the sex chromosomes will inherit independently of each other.
Nonjunction &9-triplet pattern- Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during cell division which means it will destroy the MTOC. When the MTOC is being damaged, it will not able to help cells get through meiosis or mitosis; as a result, chromosomes will not be able to separate properly during cell division.
Autosome & Steroid- Autosomes are chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. However, there are many kinds of steroid, and sex hormones, which are androgens and oestrogens, are composed by the adrenal cortex. Steroid is used to produce autosomes by using androgens and oestrogens.
Polygenic & Glycocalyx- Glycocalyx is a layer of carbohydrate on the surface of the plasma membrane of most eukaryotic cells. It plays a role in cell to cell adhesion and in regulating the exchange of materials between a cell and its environment. When the inheritance of a phenotypic characteristic that varies in degree and attributed to the interactions between two or more genes and their environment, glycocalyx will regulate the exchange of materials between cell and its environment.
The law of segregation is the separation of homologous pairs during meiosis, so there will be two versions of each gene, referred to as alleles. The law of assortment means that each chromosome inherits independently of each other. Autosome will be separated during the law of segregation and creates a pairs of sex chromosomes. From there, the sex chromosomes will inherit independently of each other.
Friday, February 4, 2011
Biology chapter 10
Homologous chromosome & Duplicated chromosome- In homologous chromosomes are chromosomes that pair of the same length and staining pattern, with genes for the same characteristics at corresponding loci. We human, receives 23 chromosomes from mother, and 23 chromosomes from father. They pair up during meiosis in synapse, which starts cell division. After the synapse, there will be 23 more duplicated chromosomes from the homologues chromosomes. We need to have homologous chromosome to achieve duplicated chromosome.
Kinetochore and MTOC- Kinetochore and MTOC- During mitosis, two identical sister chromatids are held together each with its own kinetochore which face opposite directions and attach to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle. The main function of the MTOC is to separate the chromosomes during cell division. So, as MTOC separates the chromosomes during cell division, the Kinetochore will attach to the opposite poles as well.
Haploid and Somatic- Haploid cell can be defined as containing one set of chromosomes. Somatic cells are diploid containing two copies of each chromosome, whereas the germ cells are haploid as they only contain one copy of each chromosome.
Nucleosome and Dehydration reaction-
Outline the sorting of chromosomes that takes place during meiosis.
A. Prophase 1
a. As prophase 1 begins, each pairs of chromosomes pairs with their homologue and usually swaps segments with it. Microtubules are forming a bipolar spindle. If the centroles are present, one pair will move to the opposite side of the nuclear envelop, which it will start to break up.
B. Metaphase 1
b. Microtubules from one spindle pole have tethered one of each type of chromosome, and microtubules from the other pole have tethered its homologue. They align all chromosomes midway between the poles.
C. Anaphase 1
c. Then, Microtubules attach to each of the chromosome and move it toward a spindle pole. Other microtubules, which extend from the poles and overlap at the spindle equator, ratchet past each other and push the two poles farther apart.
D. Telophase 1
d. One of each type of chromosome arrives at the spindle poles, and forms two haploid cells. All chromosomes are duplicated.
E. Prophase 2
e. The new bipolar spindle forms in each haploid cell. One chromatid of each chromosome becomes tethered to one spindle pole, and its sister chromatid becomes tethered to the opposite pole.
F. Metaphase 2
f. All chromosomes are positioned midway between the poles.
G. Anaphase 2
g. The attachment between sister chromatid of each chromosome breaks and moves it over to the spindle pole. Several of unduplicated chromosomes end up near each pole.
H. Telophase 2
h. Four nuclei forms as a new nuclear envelop encloses each cluster of chromosomes. Each of the daughter cells has a haploid number of chromosomes. \
Briefly outline section 10.4 on how meiosis generates genetic variation.
A. Crossing over in prophase 1
a. crossing over- a molecule interaction between a chromatid of one chromosome and a chromatid of the homologous partner.
b. The random tethering and subsequent positioning of each pair of maternal and paternal chromosomes at metaphase 1 lead to different combinations of maternal and paternal traits in each new generation.
Consult section 10.6 to formulate a list of similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis, beginning with how the overall
For Meiosis, it only occurs in reproductive organs only; it has 4 haploid cells; Involves 2 rounds of division; propose of division is for reproduction; resulting cells each have 23 chromosomes. For mitosis, it occurs in all somatic; results in 2 diploid cells; involves one round of division; resulting of each have 46 chromosomes.
Kinetochore and MTOC- Kinetochore and MTOC- During mitosis, two identical sister chromatids are held together each with its own kinetochore which face opposite directions and attach to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle. The main function of the MTOC is to separate the chromosomes during cell division. So, as MTOC separates the chromosomes during cell division, the Kinetochore will attach to the opposite poles as well.
Haploid and Somatic- Haploid cell can be defined as containing one set of chromosomes. Somatic cells are diploid containing two copies of each chromosome, whereas the germ cells are haploid as they only contain one copy of each chromosome.
Nucleosome and Dehydration reaction-
Outline the sorting of chromosomes that takes place during meiosis.
A. Prophase 1
a. As prophase 1 begins, each pairs of chromosomes pairs with their homologue and usually swaps segments with it. Microtubules are forming a bipolar spindle. If the centroles are present, one pair will move to the opposite side of the nuclear envelop, which it will start to break up.
B. Metaphase 1
b. Microtubules from one spindle pole have tethered one of each type of chromosome, and microtubules from the other pole have tethered its homologue. They align all chromosomes midway between the poles.
C. Anaphase 1
c. Then, Microtubules attach to each of the chromosome and move it toward a spindle pole. Other microtubules, which extend from the poles and overlap at the spindle equator, ratchet past each other and push the two poles farther apart.
D. Telophase 1
d. One of each type of chromosome arrives at the spindle poles, and forms two haploid cells. All chromosomes are duplicated.
E. Prophase 2
e. The new bipolar spindle forms in each haploid cell. One chromatid of each chromosome becomes tethered to one spindle pole, and its sister chromatid becomes tethered to the opposite pole.
F. Metaphase 2
f. All chromosomes are positioned midway between the poles.
G. Anaphase 2
g. The attachment between sister chromatid of each chromosome breaks and moves it over to the spindle pole. Several of unduplicated chromosomes end up near each pole.
H. Telophase 2
h. Four nuclei forms as a new nuclear envelop encloses each cluster of chromosomes. Each of the daughter cells has a haploid number of chromosomes. \
Briefly outline section 10.4 on how meiosis generates genetic variation.
A. Crossing over in prophase 1
a. crossing over- a molecule interaction between a chromatid of one chromosome and a chromatid of the homologous partner.
b. The random tethering and subsequent positioning of each pair of maternal and paternal chromosomes at metaphase 1 lead to different combinations of maternal and paternal traits in each new generation.
Consult section 10.6 to formulate a list of similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis, beginning with how the overall
For Meiosis, it only occurs in reproductive organs only; it has 4 haploid cells; Involves 2 rounds of division; propose of division is for reproduction; resulting cells each have 23 chromosomes. For mitosis, it occurs in all somatic; results in 2 diploid cells; involves one round of division; resulting of each have 46 chromosomes.
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