Lysogenic & Binary Fission- Lysogenic is a process of viral reproduction which characterized by integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid onto the host bacterium genome. It’s related to Binary Fission because binary fission is the primary method of reproduction of prokaryotic organisms. It differentiates into types, depending on the axis of cell separation. Since they are all a method of producing different things, therefore, they are related to each others.
Conjugation & Bacterial transformation- Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contract or by a bridge- like connection between two cells. Bacterial transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake, incorporate of exogenous genetic material from its surrounding and taken up through the cell membrane. They are related to each others because they are all directing cells to one direction.
Plasmid & Retrovirus- A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and able to replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA. A retrovirus is an RNA virus that is replicated in a host cell via the enzyme reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from its RNA genome. They are related to each others because both of them are using differ methods to produce DNA. In plasmid, the DNA molecule just replicated by itself independently, and in retrovirus, DNA just derives from RNA.
Operator & Hydrolysis- Operator is a binding site for a type of regulatory protein known as repressor, which stops transcription. During hydrolysis, an enzyme splits a molecule, and then the components of water are attached to the fragments. They both are related to each other because they all need to use enzymes to achieve their jobs.
Okazaki Fragments & Restriction enzymes- An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short of DNA created on the lagging strand during DNA replication. Each Okazaki fragment is initiated near the replication fork at the RNA primer created by primase. A restriction enzyme is an enzyme that cuts double- stranded or single stranded DNA at specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. They are related to each others because Okazaki fragment is restricted by enzymes. And those enzymes determine the jobs for Okazaki fragment.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. There are three stages of protein synthesis: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination. During the stage of initiation, protein synthesis begins with the formation of a complex of the small ribosomal subunit. This special initiation tRNA carries methionine. It binds directly to the P site on the small ribosomal subunit. Once all the conditions are met, it will begin codon of the mRNA, which is the large ribosomal subunit, and begins the initiation.
During Elongation, ribosome assembles with methionine tRNA and bounds in the P site. A peptide bonds are formed between the two amino acids and the new peptide bonds are transferred to the tRNA, which it just came in, leaving the methionine empty. Thus, the process continues, and it creates a longer amino acid sequence.
During Termination, Translation ends when one of the three top codons is bound in the A site by a release factor that resembles tRNA. This makes the new RNA strands.
2.
3. Automated DNA reveals the order of nucleotides in DNA fragments rapidly. As DNA polymerase copies a template DNA, the longer fragments stop growing as soon as one of four different fluorescent stop growing as soon as one of the four fluorescent attaches to them. Then, electrophoresis separates the labeled fragments into bands according to length. The shorter fragments will move faster than the longer fragments. The order of the colored bands as they migrate through the gel reflects which fluorescent base was added to the end of each fragment, and it indicates the template DNA base sequence. After it gets the entire DNA organized, it can get your fingerprint.
4. In prokaryotic genome, only bacteria and archaeans divide by prokaryotic fission: replication of a single, circular bacterial chromosome and division of a parent cell into two genetically equivalent daughter cells. Many species have plasmid, and prokaryotic genome can transfer plasmids to cells of the same of different species of bacterial conjugation. In eukaryotic cells, they use conjugation to divide cells instead of fission.
5. Lytic cycles are cycles of viral reproduction. The lytic cyle involves the multiplication of bacteria, and at the end of the cycle, the cells are destroyed. The different between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycles is that the lysogenic cycle is the initial cycle that occurs before the lytic cycle. The lytic cycle is prokaryotic cell, and the lysogenic cycle is for eukaryotic cells.
Tuesday, March 15, 2011
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
Chapter 13 and 14
1. 5`& electronegativity- 5` refers to when a DNA is bonding with RNA. It’s similar to electronegativity because electronegativity attracts electrons toward itself and form negative ions. DNA attaches to RNA by using PO3.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
Chapter 13 and 14
1. 5`& electronegativity- 5` refers to when a DNA is bonding with RNA. It’s similar to electronegativity because electronegativity attracts electrons toward itself and form negative ions. DNA attaches to RNA by using PO3.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
2. Start codon& incomplete dominance- Start Codon is a triplet of nucleotides on a messenger RNA molecule at which the process of translation is initiated. In eukaryotes the start codon is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine; in bacteria, the start codon can be either AUG or GUG, which code for valine. It is related to incomplete dominance because either code might be express, or just a mixture of each others.
3. Semiconservative & Barr Body- Semiconservative is a method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. It is related to Barr Body because Barr Body is a structure consists of a condensed X chromosome that is found in nondividing nuclei of female mammals. They are relating to each others because they are all trying to divide cells.
4. RNA Polymerase & nucleolus- RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA. RNA polymerase enzymes are essential to life and are found in all organisms and many viruses. It is related to nucleolus because in nucleolus consists of small dense round body within the nucleus of nondividing eukaryotic cell that is the site of ribosome assembly.
5. DNA Polymerase & glycosidic linkage- A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides in to a DNA strand. It’s related to glycosidic linkage because in glycosidic linkage it links between the monosaccharide units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. DNA polymerase is the linkage of many different DNA together.
6. Helicase & G2 karyotype- Helicases are class of enzymes vital to all living organisms. G2 Karyotype is essentials to living organisms as well because if we lack one pairs of G2 karyotype, we will not be able to survive.
A few essentials to take away from these sections
1. First, a parent DNA molecule with two complementary strands of base-paired nucleotides. Second, Replication starts, and the strands unwind and move apart from each other at specific sites along the molecule’s length. Third, each strand will attach to the new bases. Bases positioned on each old strand are joined together as a new strand.
2. Even though many people think that DNA and RNA are very similar to each others, they have very different characteristics. In DNA, it has 2 strands; it contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine; and it serves as a recipe and codes for proteins. In RNA, it has 1 stand; it still contains Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, but not Cytosine. Instead, Uracil replaces Cytosine. Its function is to assist DNA to code for proteins.
3. The three most important types of RNA are: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. Each of them has different functions. In messenger RNA, it carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In transfer RNA, it brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis. Lastly, in ribosomal RNA, it guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.
Transcription- During transcription, only parts of the unwound is used as a template stands. RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides one at a time to the end of a growing strand of RNA. A promoter is a start signal to code for proteins, a base sequence in DNA to which RNA polymerases bind and prepare for transcription.
RNA Splicing- Exons and introns are protein coding base sequences that are interrupted by noncoding sequences. Either all exons are retained in a mature mRNA transcript or some are removed and the rest are spliced together in various combinations.
Translation- The process in living cells in which the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA in the form of a sequence of nucleotides triplets, which is also referred to as codons, is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain during photosynthesis. Molecules of transfer RNA, each bearing a particular amino acid, are brought to their correct positions along the mRNA molecule. It occurs between the bases of the codons and the complementary base triplets of tRNA, which is referred to as anticodon. In this way, amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence to form polypeptide chain, referred to as elongation.
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